US Diplomats Who Aided Jews

In alphabetical order

Adolph A. Berle, Jr., Assistant US Secretary of State, Washington, DC, 1940-1945

On February 16 and 23, 1940, the Assistant Secretary of State Berle tried to persuade Secretary of State Cordell Hull to help Jews based on reports of deportations of Jews to concentration camps.  He also tried to persuade the State Department to condemn Nazi persecution of Jews.  Later, Berle helped liberalize State Department policy toward issuing visas.  In late 1943, Berle approved a license for a transfer of funds to save Jewish rabbis in Czechoslovakia.  Berle stated that the “no ransom” policy was no longer pertinent.

[Breitman, Richard and Alan M. Kraut, American Refugee Policy and European Jews. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), pp. 120-123, 160, 186, 195, 200-201, 240, 242.  Friedman, Saul S. No Haven for the Oppressed. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1973), pp. 128, 134. Wyman, David S. The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945. (New York: Pantheon, 1984), pp. 74, 80, 111, 145, 190-191.  NA/SDDF, 840.48 Refugees / 5136, January 29, 1944, Berle memorandum to Rabbi Riegelmann.  Feingold, Henry. The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1944. (New Brunswick, NJ: (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1970), pp. 101, 142, 217, 227.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Burton Berry, US Consul, Istanbul, Turkey, 1943

US Consul in Istanbul, Burton Berry, sent numerous reports regarding the treatment of Jews in Greece.  Berry made continuous desperate appeals to his superiors in the US State Department to save Greek Jews from deportation and death.  He also suggested that the State Department assist Jews in escaping to Palestine, the Middle East and the mountains of Greece.  Berry sent Washington a report on the arrest and deportation of the Jews in Salonika.

[Matsas, Michael. The Illusion of Safety: The Story of the Greek Jews During World War II. (New York: Pella Publishing Co.1997), p. 21-23, 67, 95, 98, 411.  Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, Hyde Park, New York.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Anthony J. Drexel Biddle, Jr., US Ambassador to the European Governments in Exile and US Ambassador to Poland

On August 26, 1942, Ambassador Biddle forwarded an eight-page memorandum prepared by Ernest Frischer, who was a member of the Czechoslovakian State Council in Exile.  This report detailed the wholesale organized murder of Jews by the German government.  Biddle thought this document was so important that he forwarded it directly to President Roosevelt.  Biddle was a personal friend of Roosevelt.  This report had a significant impact on US diplomats in Washington.  As Ambassador to Poland in 1938, Biddle sent a report to US Secretary of State Cordell Hull warning him regarding Nazi Germany and the dangers of a future Holocaust.  He advocated that something be done to protect Jews.

[Morse, Arthur D. While Six Million Died: A Chronicle of American Apathy. (New York: Random House, 1967), pp. 10, 33, 232-233.  Feingold, Henry. The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1944. (New Brunswick, NJ:(New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1970), p. 171.  Friedman (1973), pp. 41, 259.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Hiram Bingham IV, US Vice Consul in Marseilles, France, 1937-1941

Hiram Bingham was the American Vice Consul in charge of visas, stationed in Marseilles, France, in 1940-1941.  Shortly after the fall of France, Bingham, against the orders and policy of his superiors, issued visas, safe passes, and letters of transit to Jewish refugees.  Many visas were falsified in order to protect the refugees from internment.  Bingham helped set up the contacts and issued visas for the Emergency Rescue Committee, headed by Varian Fry.  Bingham also worked with other rescue operations in Marseilles, including the American Friends’ Service Committee (Quakers), the American Red Cross, the Unitarian Service Committee, the Mennonite Committee, and Jewish relief organizations.  Bingham also worked with the Nîmes (Camps) Committee.  He was, in part, responsible for saving several thousand Jews.  Among them were many anti-Nazi activists, labor leaders, and Communists.  He also rescued Jewish artists, intellectuals, writers and scientists, such as Marc Chagall, Max Ernst, André Breton, Heinrich Mann, and Jewish Nobel Prize winners.  Bingham visited the concentration camps and facilitated issuing visas to Jews trapped in the Les Milles French concentration camp.  In May 1941, Bingham helped the Quakers, the Nîmes Committee and the OSE rescue several hundred Jewish children by issuing US visas.  These children left France in June 1941.  In 1942, Bingham was transferred to the US embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina.  At the end of the war, he reported on the immigration of Nazi war criminals to Buenos Aires.  He wrote numerous reports and encouraged his supervisors to report these activities to the State Department.  His superiors did nothing and he resigned from the Foreign Service in protest.  In 2000, Bingham was presented the American Foreign Service Association Constructive Dissent award by the US Secretary of State.  In 2005, Hiram Bingham was given a letter of commendation from Israel’s Holocaust Museum.  In 2006, a US commemorative postage stamp was issued in his honor.

[Fry, Varian. Assignment Rescue. (New York: Scholastic, 1997).  Fry, Varian. Surrender on Demand. (New York: Random House, 1945), pp. 10-12, 14, 17-18, 32-33, 49, 56-57, 69-70, 83, 87-90, 147, 172, 215. Marino, Andy. A Quiet American: The Secret War of Varian Fry. (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), pp. 99-100, 196, 107-108, 117, 120, 187, 209, 231, 268, 285, 287. Isenberg, Sheila. A Hero of Our Own: The Story of Varian Fry. (New York: Random House), pp. 75-76, 83, 86, 89, 125, 142, 150, 152-153, 193, 193n. Ryan, Donna F. The Holocaust and the Jews of Marseille: The Enforcement of Anti-Semitic Policies in Vichy France. (Urbana, IL: The University of Illinois Press, 1996), pp. 130, 142, 144. Hockley, Ralph M. Freedom is not Free. (2000). US Holocaust Memorial Museum. Assignment Rescue: The Story of Varian Fry and the Emergency Rescue Committee. [Exhibit catalog.] (Washington, DC: US Holocaust Memorial Museum, 1997), p. 7.  Wyman, David S. Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1939-1941. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), pp. 167-168.  Varian Fry Papers, Columbia University.  HICEM records, France, YIVO Archives.  Bauer, Yehuda. American Jewry and the Holocaust. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1981), p. 171.  American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee Archives, New York City.  Bauer, Yehuda. American Jewry and the Holocaust. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1981), p. 171.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Homer Brett, US Consul in Rotterdam, Holland

On January 12, 1937, the State Department issued new visa instructions.  The directive was sent to diplomatic posts:

“There have been an increasing number of complaints received by the Department and some recent public criticism that the visa work of the consuls is not being carried out in a fair and impartial manner, particularly, that the public charge provisions are not being properly administered and that the consuls are acting under the mistaken idea that they are responsible for keeping the issuance of visas to a minimum… Examinations of the complaints and review of consular visa correspondence show that there is a real basis for adverse criticism.”

Homer Brett, the US Consul in Rotterdam, Holland, in support of the new directive, wrote:

“If it is permissible for a consular officer to express an opinion regarding an instruction from the Department I would like to say I am very happy to have this assurance that the policy set forth… September 30, 1930, and in subsequent oral and written instructions in the same sense, has been abandoned and that Amierca is once again to resume its historic and glorious position as a land of refuge for the downtrodden and oppressed… It is good now to have a plain instruction that the law is to be enforced as it is written and not according to forced interpretations.”

[Morse (1967), p. 198.]


Wilbur Carr, US Minister to Czechoslovakia, 1939

Wilbur Carr was the US Minister to Czechoslovakia at the time of the Nazi annexation.  In a report to the Secretary of State, March 19, 1939, he wrote:

“The Jewish population is terrified; as are Social democrats and also those closely associated with the former regime.  Consequently if action can be taken it should be done speedily.  While the British Legation seems to be hopeful of obtaining exit permits for most of its refugee cases I am personally doubtful whether Germany would be receptive to requests for the departure of political refugees and Jews but it would seem to be the humane duty of our Government to support some kind of international action to this end even though doubts may be entertained as to the outcome.”

[Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS) report.  Rothkirchen, Livia. The Jews of Bohemia and Moravia: Facing the Holocaust. (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2005).  Morse (1967), pp. 118-119, 136, 163, 165, 196-197.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Rives Childs, US Consul General in Tangier, Algeria, 1944

Rives Childs, the head of the US legation in Tangier, Algeria, made connections with the Spanish authorities in Madrid and in Morocco and helped saved more than 1,200 Jews.  He persuaded Spanish authorities to issue the Jewish refugees visas and access to Spanish safe houses until they could emigrate from Algeria.  Childs worked closely with Renée Reichmann and her rescue committee and Luis Orgaz, the Spanish High Commissioner for Tangier.  Orgaz helped obtain Spanish transit visas for Jewish refugees.

[Alexy, Trudy. The Mezuzah in the Madonna’s Foot, pp. 200-201. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993). Bianco, Anthony. The Reichmanns: Family, Faith, Fortune, and the Empire of Olympia & York. (New York: Times Books, 1997). Braham, Randolph L. The Politics of Genocide: The Holocaust in Hungary. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), pp. 1061-1062, 1092. Kranzler, David. The Man Who Stopped the Trains to Auschwitz George Mantello, El Salvador, and Switzerland’s Finest Hour. (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2000), p. 196. Kranzler, David. Thy Brother’s Blood: The Orthodox Jewish Response During the Holocaust. (Brooklyn, NY: Mesorah, 1987), pp. 250-254. Childs, Rives. Foreign Service Farewell, pp. 116-117.  Rozett, Robert. “Child Rescue in Budapest,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 2 (1987), pp. 49-59.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Eliot B. Coulter, Assistant Chief of the Visa Division, US State Department

[Morse, 1967, pp. 195-197.]


William E. Dodd, US Ambassador in Berlin, Germany

William E. Dodd was the US ambassador in Berlin, Germany.  Dodd was a strong and consistent anti-Nazi in the US embassy.  Like his colleague Consul George S. Messersmith, he warned Washington about the continuing appeasement of the Nazis by the French and British governments.  In addition, Dodd was openly critical of Nazi anti-Semitism.  He strenuously objected to the embassy’s attempts to establish close relations with Nazi party leaders.  Dodd was praised by American Jewish leaders for his efforts to denounce the German government and for advocating a strong US anti-Nazi policy.  Dodd’s appointment was abruptly terminated and he was recalled as a result of German government pressure against him.  After his return to the US, Dodd lectured against Nazi aggression. 

[Feingold (1970), pp. 16, 19.  Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS).  Morse (1967), pp. 120, 153, 182.  Shafir, Shlomo. “American Diplomats in Berlin (1933-1939) and their Attitude to the Nazi Persecution of the Jews.” Yad Vashem Studies, 9 (1973), pp. 81-93, 103.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Howard Elting, Jr., Consul, US Embassy in Bern, Switzerland, 1943-44

US Consul Howard Elting was stationed at the US embassy in Bern, Switzerland.  Elting was approached by Gerhardt Riegner, representing the World Jewish Congress, with information about the deportation and murder of the Jews of Poland.  It was the Auschwitz Report (also known as the Auschwitz Protocols).  Elting then sent an urgent cable to the US State Department advising them of this devastating information.

This information was based on a report of two Jews who had escaped from the Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp.  Elting was one of the first diplomats in Europe who recognized the importance of this information.  He believed that the reports of the murder of Jews were true, and endorsed Riegner’s telegram to the State Department.  Elting and his associates at the US Embassy in Bern also sent the information to Jewish community leaders in the United States and Europe. 

The US Secretary of State and other State Department officials suppressed this information.

[Friedman, Saul S. No Haven for the Oppressed. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1973), pp. 130-131, 136, 140, 142.  Gutman, Yisrael (Ed.). Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, 4 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1990), p. 1275.  Koblik, Steven. The Stones Cry Out: Sweden’s Response to the Persecution of the Jews, 1933-1945. (New York: Holocaust Library, 1988), pp. 144, 196-197. Morse, Arthur D. While Six Million Died: A Chronicle of American Apathy. (New York: Random House, 1967), pp. 7-9, 11. Penkower (1983), p. 64.  Wyman, David S. The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945. (New York: Pantheon, 1984), pp. 43-44.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Herbert Feis, US State Department

[Feingold (1970), p. 182.  Morse (1967), pp. 74-75, 104.  Penkower (1983), pp. 128-129.  Wyman (1984), pp. 180-185.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Dr. Raymond Herman Geist, American Consul General and First Secretary, US Embassy in Berlin, 1929-39

Between 1929 and 1939, Dr. Raymond Herman Geist was the American Consul General in Berlin.  Geist sent a number of reports to the State Department about the increasing persecution of Jews between 1933 and 1939.  In December 1938, Geist warned Assistant Secretary of State Messersmith that the Jews of Germany were being condemned to death, and urged measures to rescue them.  In May 1939, Geist sent another warning to Washington stating that if resettlement opportunities did not open up soon, the Jews of Germany would be doomed.  In a letter to his former supervisor in Washington, Geist wrote:  “The Jews in Germany are being condemned to death and their sentence will be slowly carried out; but probably too fast for the world to save them…After we have saved these refugees, and the Catholics and Protestants have not become new victims of the wrath here, we could break off relations and prepare to join in a war against them [the Germans].  We shall have to do so sooner or later; as France and England will be steadily pushed to the wall and eventually to save ourselves we shall have to save them.  The European situation was lost to the democracies at Munich and the final situation is slowly being prepared.  The age lying before us will witness great struggles and the outcome when it comes will determine the fate of civilization for a century or more.”  During the period of 1938-39, he helped many Jews and anti-Nazis to emigrate from Germany.  He personally intervened on behalf of these refugees with the Nazi high officials.  He did this well beyond his official duties as Consul General.  Further, he helped Jews and others who were under imminent threat of deportation to the concentration camps leave Germany.  Geist opposed the transfer of German quotas to US consulates outside of Nazi Germany.  He did this because he felt German Jews were in much more danger than Jews in other parts of Europe at the time.  Geist also issued letters to German refugees indicating that they appeared to be eligible for visas, and that their quota number would come up soon.  Often, these letters were sufficient to have people released from Nazi concentration camps.  The letters were also used to help refugees gain entry to neighboring countries.  Geist was encouraged not to follow this practice.

[Laqueur, Walter (Ed.) and Judith Tydor Baumel (Assoc. Ed.).  The Holocaust Encyclopedia. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), p. 10. Levin, Nora. The Holocaust: The Destruction of European Jewry, 1933-1945. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1968), p. 724. Shafir, Shlomo. “American Diplomats in Berlin (1933-1939) and their Attitude to the Nazi Persecution of the Jews.” Yad Vashem Studies, 9 (1973), pp. 98, 102-103.  Rublee, George. “The Reminiscences of George Rublee.” Columbia University Oral History Collection.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Prentiss Gilbert, Chargé d’Affaires, US Embassy, Berlin, Germany, 193?

Prentiss Gilbert was the Chargé d’Affaires at the US embassy in Berlin, Germany, 193?.  After the recall of the US Ambassador Wilson in 1938, Prentiss Gilbert headed the embassy.  Gilbert strongly criticized the Nazi party and the persecution of Jews in Germany.  He and Raymond H. Geist worked closely with US embassy official George Rublee and his assistant, Robert Pell, in their dealings with Nazi authorities.

[Shafir, Shlomo. “American Diplomats in Berlin (1933-1939) and their Attitude to the Nazi Persecution of the Jews.” Yad Vashem Studies, 9 (1973), pp. 98-99.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Herbert S. Goold, US Consul General in Casablanca, Morocco, 1941

Herbert S. Goold was the US Consul General in Casablanca, Morocco, stationed there in early 1941.  Goold was concerned about refugees being held in local French concentration camps.  He periodically visited the camps and pressed officials to improve conditions in the camp.  He issued visas to individuals in the camps who were then released.  As a result of Goold’s work, there was a large group of refugees who needed processing.  Consular officials in the Casablanca office spent many of their free, off-duty hours processing visa applications.

[Wyman, David S. Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1939-1941. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), pp. 166-167.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Franklin Mott Gunther, U.S. Ambassador in Bucharest, Romania, 1941

Franklin Mott Gunther was the US Ambassador stationed in Bucharest, Romania, in 1941.  Gunther sent detailed dispatches and reports to the State Department outlining the atrocities committed by the fascist Iron Guard party in January 1941.  Gunther also reported on the deportation of Romanian Jews to the eastern territories by the Germans.  In addition, he contacted President Roosevelt in a private letter where he provided advice for the possible resettlement of Jews in Africa.  He further stated the Romanian officials were willing to negotiate with countries regarding receiving Romanian Jews.  Gunther’s reports and letter were criticized by U.S. State Department officials.  The U.S. State Department did not act in any way on Gunther’s recommendations.  Gunther was discouraged by the lack of interest of the State Department in helping Jews.

[Feingold, Henry. The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1944. (New Brunswick, NJ:(New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1970), pp. 48, 179, 182.  Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), II, p. 870, November 2, 1941, Franklin Gunther to Cordell Hull.  Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), II, pp. 875-876, November 12, 1941, Memorandum by Cavendish Canon.  Friedman (1973), pp. 139, 145, 148-151, 207-208.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Leland Harrison, U.S. Ambassador to Switzerland, 1940-42?

US Ambassador to Switzerland Leland Harrison was sympathetic to Jewish rescue and relief operations working out of Switzerland.  From the US embassy in Bern, Switzerland, Harrison worked closely with World Jewish Congress agent Gerhardt Riegner.  Harrison forwarded numerous reports to the State Department regarding the murder of the Jews of Europe.  He endorsed many of these reports as being credible and recommended action be taken to provide rescue and relief to Jews.  Harrison also allowed Riegner and his staff to forward messages around the world using the embassy’s cable system.  Members of his staff Paul Chapin Squire and Howard Elting, Jr., were also sympathetic to Jewish relief causes.

[Bauer, Yehuda. American Jewry and the Holocaust. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1981), pp. 401, 404.  Feingold, Henry. The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1944. (New Brunswick, NJ: (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1970), pp. 180-181, 239-240.  Friedman (1973), pp. 131-134, 150.  Morse, Arthur D. While Six Million Died: A Chronicle of American Apathy. (New York: Random House, 1967), pp. 9, 13, 17-21, 45-46, 73, 75-77, 80-85, 87-88, 91.  Penkower (1983), pp. 75, 72-73, 127-129, 132, 251.  Wyman, David S. The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945. (New York: Pantheon, 1984), pp. 50, 179, 181, 184, 186.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


J. Klahr Huddle, US Foreign Service Inspector

In 1936, the US State Department, stung by public criticism of its visa policies and procedures, assigned State Department Foreign Service Inspector J. Klahr Huddle to review its policies.  He studied the visa procedures in the US consulates in Stuttgart, Germany.  Huddle reported that German Jews did not pose a risk to the United States.  He concluded:

“Many of the immigrants come from the better-class families and…although they frequently have only distant relatives in the United States, these…have a sincere desire to assist their relatives in Germany, so that the likelihood of their becoming a public charge is very remote.”

[Morse, 1967, pp. 195-196.]


Herschel V. Johnson, US Minister in Stockholm, Sweden, 1943?

Herschel V. Johnson was the American Minister in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1943.  During the refugee crisis and Nazi deportation actions in Denmark and central Europe, Johnson was predisposed toward, and advocated help for, Jewish refugees.  Johnson reported that Swedish government officials and members of the Foreign Ministry had taken actions on behalf of Dutch and Norwegian Jews.  He tried to get the US government to help during this refugee crisis.  Johnson was thwarted by the US State Department in his attempts to rescue Jews.  In October 1943, he reported on the Danish-Swedish rescue of Jews.  Johnson became the War Refugee Board representative to Sweden and recommended Raoul Wallenberg for its rescue mission in Budapest, Hungary.

[Breitman, Richard. “American rescue activities in Sweden.” Holocaust and Genocide Studies.  Feingold, Henry. The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1944. (New Brunswick, NJ:(New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1970), p. 258.  Friedman, 1973, p. 136.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.  Wyman, 1984, pp. 229-231.]


Alexander Kirk, Chargé d’Affaires at US Embassy in Berlin, 1938-39, US Embassy in Warsaw, 1940-?

Alexander Kirk was the Chargé d’Affaires at US Embassy in Berlin in 1938-39 and later at the US Embassy in Warsaw.  Kirk worked with US Consul General Dr. Raymond Hermann Geist in helping Jews obtain visas at the US Embassy in Berlin.  While stationed at the US embassy in Warsaw, Kirk reported on the deportations of Jews to concentration camps.  Despite his efforts to help Jews, Kirk was an opponent of Zionism in Palestine.

[Friedman, Saul S. No Haven for the Oppressed. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1973), p. 134. Shafir, Shlomo. “American Diplomats in Berlin (1933-1939) and their Attitude to the Nazi Persecution of the Jews.” Yad Vashem Studies, 9 (1973), pp. 71-104.  Tittmann, Harold H., Jr., Harold H. Tittman III (Ed.). Inside the Vatican of Pius XII: The Memoir of an American Diplomat During World War II. (New York: Image Books Doubleday, 2004), pp. 27-29, 33-34, 128.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Lincoln MacVeagh, US Ambassador to Greece, Athens (later relocated to Cairo, Egypt)

The US Ambassador to Greece, Lincoln MacVeagh, sent numerous humanitarian reports regarding the condition of Greek Jews and their persecution.

[Matsas, Michael. The Illusion of Safety: The Story of the Greek Jews During World War II. (New York: Pella Publishing Co.1997), p. 21, 67, 95, 98, 411.  Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, Hyde Park, New York.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


William MacDonald, American Red Cross in Poland

William MacDonald was the American Red Cross representative in Poland.  MacDonald was able to help Jewish refugees from his position at the Red Cross in Poland.

[Bauer, Yehuda. American Jewry and the Holocaust. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1981), p. 85.]


James Grover McDonald, League of Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

McDonald became the Chairman of the Foreign Policy Association in New York in 1919.  He served the Association until 1933.  At that time, McDonald was appointed as head of the newly-created League of Nations Office of High Commissioner for Refugees in Germany.  His appointment as an American Commissioner to the League was ironic, since America did not belong to the world organization.  His efforts on behalf of Jewish refugees found little support in either the US State Department or the British or French Foreign Offices.  Throughout the war, McDonald supported the rescue of refugees through immigration to the United States.  These policies were continually opposed by the State Department.  After the war, he was appointed the first American Ambassador to Israel, a position he held until 1951. 

[London, L. Whitehall and the Jews, 1933-1948: British immigration policy, Jewish refugees and the Holocaust, pp. 83-84. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Gutman, Yisrael (Ed.). Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, 4 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 204, 455, 954-956, 1187, 1237. Feingold, Henry. The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1944. (New Brunswick, NJ: (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1970), pp. 14, 18, 25-26, 31, 52, 76, 80, 92, 127, 139, 142, 144-147, 152, 156, 160, 162-164, 213, 286.  Wyman, David S. The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945. (New York: Pantheon, 1984), pp. 45-46, 315. Morse, Arthur D. While Six Million Died: A Chronicle of American Apathy. (New York: Random House, 1967), pp. 148, 160, 167-168, 171, 187-190, 205, 209, 211, 295-296, 303. Penkower, Monty Noam. The Jews Were Expendable: Free World diplomacy and the Holocaust.  (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983), pp. 69, 113, 248, 250.  His papers were donated to the US Holocaust Memorial Museum.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.  Breitman, Stewart & Hochberg, 2007.]


Paul V. McNutt, U.S. Commissioner of the Philippine Islands

In August 1938, President Franklin Roosevelt asked Commissioner of the Philippine Islands Paul V. McNutt whether the Philippines could admit 200 Jewish refugee families.  McNutt stated, “We think it would be possible for them to absorb…2,000 families and possibly 5,000 more families thereafter.”  Further, McNutt thought that Jews could be sent to the Philippine island of Mindanao.  Eventually, more than one thousands refugees were able to enter the Philippines.  Most of them survived the war.

[Feingold, Henry. The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1944. (New Brunswick, NJ:(New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1970), p. 98.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


George Strausser Messersmith, US Consul General in Berlin, 1930-1934, Vienna, 1934, and Assistant Secretary of State

George S. Messersmith was the US Consul General (First Secretary) at the US embassy in Berlin, Germany, from 1930-1934.  He was a very early critic of Hitler and the Nazis.  In the spring of 1934, he was posted as US Minister to Vienna.  After his appointment in Vienna, Messersmith was appointed Assistant Secretary of State, where he was active in opposing the State Department’s appeasement of Hitler.  Messersmith was consistently skeptical of Hitler’s declarations of peace.  He advised Washington against cooperation with Hitler and Germany.  He constantly protested the German treatment of Jewish and Austrian citizens.  He often interceded on behalf of German Jews.  Messersmith was among the most outspoken Anti-Nazis in the US consul corps.

In response to the Kristallnacht action of November 9-10, 1938, in Germany, Messersmith sent this memorandum to Secretary of State Cordell Hull:

“Of all the many acts of the present German Government against innocent and defenseless peoples, these last are the culmination.  For a Government to order and to carry through such wholesale action against a part of its people, and to threaten the rest of the world with further action if it should even pass censure, is an irresponsible and mad act that our Government cannot pass unnoticed.

“We have throughout our history let it be known where we stand on matters of principle and the decencies… Whenever such acts in the past have been committed, or permitted by Governments, in countries which the world has considered less civilized, we have spoken and acted.  The proud record of this Government, and of our public conscience shows this (Russia, Turkey, Rumania).  When a country which vaunts its civilization as superior commits in cold blood and with deliberation acts worse than those we have in the past dealt with vigorously, the time has come, I believe, when it is necessary for us to take action beyond mere condemnation.

“It is my belief that unless we take some action in the face of the events in Germany of the last few days, we shall be much behind our public opinion in this country.”

Messersmith urged Hull to recall the US Ambassador to Germany Wilson to protest Kristallnacht.  Hull then telegrammed Wilson that the situation in Germany was so bad that the President “desires you to report to him in person.”

[Breitman, Richard and Alan M. Kraut, American Refugee Policy and European Jews. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), pp. 18, 39-45, 48-51, 57, 59-60, 65-68, 73-74, 121, 137, 201, 263 n. 32.  Morse, 1967, pp. 106-107, 111, 144-145, 155-156, 207, 216, 229-230.  Shafir, Shlomo. “American Diplomats in Berlin (1933-1939) and their Attitude to the Nazi Persecution of the Jews.” Yad Vashem Studies, 9 (1973), pp. 72-73, 76-80, 85, 96, 102-103.  Shafir, Shlomo. “George S. Messersmith: An Anti-Nazi Diplomat’s View of the German Jewish Crisis.” Jewish Social Studies.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Herbert C. Pell, US Minister to Portugal, 1940?, US Representative to the United Nations War Crimes Commission

The US Minister to Portugal, Herbert C. Pell, complained about the State Department’s policy of not granting visas to Jewish refugees leaving central Europe.  He felt that many of these refugees were some of the greatest minds in the world, and the US should take advantage and let them enter the country.  Pell told Varian Fry, of the Emergency Rescue Committee in Marseilles, that “there is a fire sale of brains going on here and we are not taking full advantage of it.  Our immigration laws are too rigid and some of our consuls interpret them too strictly.”  Herbert Pell was appointed by Franklin Roosevelt to head a commission to create the international military tribunal to prosecute Nazi war criminals after the war.

[Feingold, 1970, pp. 145, 173, 229.  Marino, Andy. A Quiet American: The Secret War of Varian Fry. (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), p. 115.  Morse, 1967, pp. 375-381.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.  Wyman, 1983, pp. 257-260.]


Daniel Reagan, Commercial Attaché, American Legion, Bern, Switzerland

[Morse, 1983, pp. 75-76.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


H. Shoemaker, Former US Ambassador to Bulgaria

H. Shoemaker, the former US Ambassador to Bulgaria, makes a broadcast appeal to the Bulgarian people to resist the impending deportation of Jews.  The appeal was radioed to Bulgarian from the Bulgarian-American Committee in New York City.

[Feingold, Henry. The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1944. (New Brunswick, NJ:(New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1970), p. 185.  Kubowitzki, A. Leon. Unity in Dispersion: A History of the World Jewish Congress. (New York: World Jewish Congress, 1948), p. 182.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Walter Sholes, US Consul General in Lyon, France, 1940

Walter Sholes was the US Consul General in Lyon, France, after the fall of France in 1940.  Consul General Sholes requested that the US State Department transfer a large number of German and Polish quota numbers to be issued to German, Austrian and French Jews who were trapped in southern France.  The American embassy in Berlin asked Sholes to re-examine these cases and to turn down the refugees’ requests for visas.  Because of this action, a number of Jews were able to get U.S. quota numbers and were able to leave southern France.

[Hodgdon to Sholes, 15 October 1940, NA RG 84, American Consulate Basle, 123-L, as cited in Feingold, Henry L. “Who Shall Bear the Guilt for the Holocaust: The Human Dilemma.” American Jewish History, 7, 1-22.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Paul Chapin Squire, Consul

Paul Chapin Squire was the US Consul in Bern, Switzerland.  Gerhardt Riegner, representative of the World Jewish Congress in Switzerland, sent information confirming the murder of Jews through Consul Paul Chapin Squire.  Squire was very sympathetic to the cause of Jewish refugee organizations operating out of Switzerland.  He allowed Riegner to use the embassy’s cable system to contact outside agencies.  Squire extensively investigated the reports of the murder of Jews and verified many of the stories.

[Morse, Arthur D. While Six Million Died: A Chronicle of American Apathy. (New York: Random House, 1967), pp. 5, 7, 15-21.  Wyman, David S. The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945. (New York: Pantheon, 1984), pp. 50.  Feingold, Henry. The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1944. (New Brunswick, NJ: (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1970), p. 171.  Bauer, Yehuda. American Jewry and the Holocaust. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1981), p. 191.  Breitman, Richard and Alan M. Kraut, American Refugee Policy and European Jews. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), pp. 149, 151-152, 156-157, 183-184.]


Leslie Albion Squires, US Vice Consul in Istanbul, Turkey, 1943

Leslie Albion Squires was the U.S. Vice Consul stationed in Istanbul, Turkey.  He sent reports to the State Department regarding the plight of Greek Jews.  Along with other members of the U.S. embassy, he sent numerous reports to the State Department.  Squires tried to get the US State Department to intervene on behalf of Greek Jews.

[Breitman, Richard and Alan M. Kraut, American Refugee Policy and European Jews. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), p. 215.  Matsas, Michael. The Illusion of Safety: The Story of the Greek Jews During World War II. (New York: Pella Publishing Co., 1997), pp. 21-25.  Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, Hyde Park, New York. US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Laurence A. Steinhardt, US Ambassador to USSR 1939-1942, andTurkey 1942-1945

Laurence Steinhardt was one of the very few Jewish senior members of the US State Department.  In 1939, Ambassador Steinhardt was sent to the Soviet Union.  This was a crucial and sensitive appointment.  While there, he took steps to help Eastern European Jews escape the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union.  Early in 1942, he was made Ambassador to Turkey, and for the next three years played a vital part in helping to win the Turkish republic to the Allied cause.  Steinhardt was further instrumental in completing lend-lease agreements with Turkey. 

While in Turkey, Steinhardt was responsible for helping Jews throughout Eastern Europe.  He worked with Jewish rescue and relief agencies and other diplomats, including Papal representative in Ankara Cardinal Roncalli, later Pope John XXIII, in helping to save Jews.  Steinhardt also worked with the newly-established War Refugee Board, founded in January 1944.  He worked closely with board representative Ira Hirschmann.  As a result of this successful collaboration, thousands of Jews were saved.

In 1950, he was killed in a place crash while on a mission for the State Department. 

[Feingold, Henry. The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1944. (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1970), pp. 145, 281-291.  Friedman, Saul S. No Haven for the Oppressed. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1973), pp. 120, 147. Wyman, David S. The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945. (New York: Pantheon, 1984), pp. 216-217, 219, 239-240, 244. Hirschmann, Ira A. Life Line to a Promised Land. (New York: Vanguard Press, 1946), pp. 18, 22, 42-43, 49, 58, 61, 63-64, 71, 84-85, 105, 109, 131, 137, 153, 166-167, 168. Hirschmann, Ira. Caution to the Winds. (New York: David McKay Co.), pp. 179-185. Hirschmann, Ira A.  The Embers Still Burn. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1949).  Braham, Randolph L. The Politics of Genocide: The Holocaust in Hungary. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), pp. 945, 947, 1095, 1108, 1286 fn165, 1288 fn209.  Gutman, Yisrael (Ed.). Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, 4 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 239, 665.  Shaw, Stanford J. Turkey and the Holocaust: Turkey’s Role in Rescuing Turkish and European Jewry from Nazi Persecution, 1933-1945. (New York: New York University Press, 1993), pp. 124-126, 128, 291-295, 300-301. Morse, Arthur D. While Six Million Died: A Chronicle of American Apathy. (New York: Random House, 1967), pp. 331-332, 368-369. Penkower, Monty Noam. The Jews Were Expendable: Free World diplomacy and the Holocaust.  (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983), pp. 63-67, 174-175, 177-178, 250.  See Yishuv in Turkey, Ira Hirschmann and Cardinal Roncalli. Levin, Nora. The Holocaust: The Destruction of European Jewry, 1933-1945. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1968), pp. 629-630, 634. Hebblethwaite, Peter. Pope John XXIII: Shepherd of the modern world. (New York, 1985), pp. 141-143. Lapide, Pinchas E. Three Popes and the Jews. (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1967). Morley, John. Vatican Diplomacy and the Jews during the Holocaust, 1939-1943. (New York: Ktav, 1980), pp. 43, 45, 61, 91-92, 94, 122-123, 161, 206. Ofer, D. “The Rescue Activities of the Jewish Agency Delegation in Istanbul in 1943.” In Rescue Attempts during the Holocaust. Proceedings of the Second Yad Vashem International Historical Conference, edited by Y. Gutman and E. Zuroff, pp. 435-450. (Jerusalem, 1977).  Laurence A. Steinhardt Papers, Library of Congress Archive.  Bauer, Yehuda. American Jewry and the Holocaust. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1981), pp. 395, 397, 406.  Breitman, Richard and Alan M. Kraut, American Refugee Policy and European Jews. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), pp. 123-124, 131-132, 215-216.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD, Turkey, FRUS.  War Refugee Board Papers and Files, Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library (FDRL), Hyde Park, New York.]


Myron Taylor, US Representative to the Vatican, 1942?

Myron Taylor was appointed by Franklin Roosevelt to represent the State Department in the US mission to the Vatican.  He was sent there specifically to try to get the Pope to intervene on behalf of Jews being murdered in Europe.

Taylor sent a strongly worded note to Vatican Secretary of State Cardinal Maglione in September 1942 declaring that Jews were being sent to the east and being murdered.  Taylor also had personal audiences with Pope Pius XII and other Vatican officials.  He gave the Pope numerous memoranda dealing with the murder of Jews in Europe.  By the end of the war, Pope Pius sent a number of communications to countries in Europe asking them to halt the deportation and murder of Jews.

[Morley, John. Vatican Diplomacy and the Jews during the Holocaust, 1939-1943. (New York: Ktav, 1980), pp. 3, 61, 65, 88, 93, 138, 157, 175.  Gutman, Yisrael (Ed.). Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, 4 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1990), p. 1137.  Tittmann, Harold H., Jr., Harold H. Tittman III (Ed.). Inside the Vatican of Pius XII: The Memoir of an American Diplomat During World War II. (New York: Image Books Doubleday, 2004), pp. 4-12, 14, 20-21, 23, 33, 58, 76, 80, 112, 125.  Feingold, Henry. The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1944. (New Brunswick, NJ:(New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1970), pp. 28-29, 31, 37, 39, 42, 44, 60, 64, 69, 71-72, 74-75, 78-79, 82-85, 87-88, 105-106, 113, 115, 122, 145, 213, 253, 305.  Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, Hyde Park, New York.  Breitman, Richard and Alan M. Kraut, American Refugee Policy and European Jews. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), pp. 60, 62-63, 103, 105-106, 136, 140, 153-154, 194-195, 231.]


Richard Tindall, US Brigadier General Military Attaché, Istanbul, Turkey, 1943-44

Brigadier General Richard Tindall was the US Attaché at the American embassy in Istanbul, Turkey.  Tindall sent in reports to the State Department regarding the treatment of Jews in Athens.

[Matsas, Michael. The Illusion of Safety: The Story of the Greek Jews During World War II. (New York: Pella Publishing Co.1997), p. 22-23, 67, 95, 98, 411.  Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, Hyde Park, New York.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Harold H. Tittmann, US Chargé d’Affaires to the Holy See, 1943-?

Harold H. Tittmann was the US Chargé d’Affaires to the Holy See.  He served as the assistant to Myron Taylor, who was President Roosevelt’s representative to the Vatican.  Tittmann worked closely with representative Taylor in trying to get the Vatican to condemn the Nazi massacre of Jews in eastern Europe.

[Braham, Randolph L. The Politics of Genocide: The Holocaust in Hungary. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), pp. 1064-1065, 1070. Leboucher, Fernande. Translated by J. F. Bernard. Incredible Mission. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1969).  Morley, John. Vatican Diplomacy and the Jews during the Holocaust, 1939-1943. (New York: Ktav, 1980), pp. 65, 88, 118-119, 135, 173-178. Morse, Arthur D. While Six Million Died: A Chronicle of American Apathy. (New York: Random House, 1967), pp. 14-15. Levin, Nora. The Holocaust: The Destruction of European Jewry, 1933-1945. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1968), pp. 686-687.  Tittmann, Harold H., Jr., Harold H. Tittman III (Ed.). Inside the Vatican of Pius XII: The Memoir of an American Diplomat During World War II. (New York: Image Books Doubleday, 2004).  Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, Hyde Park, New York.]


Pinkney Tuck, US Chargé d’Affaires, US Embassy, Vichy, 1942

Pinkney Tuck was the US Chargé d’Affaires in Vichy, France, in 1942.  In the summer of 1942, Tuck complained and vigorously protested against the deportation of Jewish children from Vichy France.  This complaint was lodged personally with Pierre Laval.

Laval, with sarcasm, asked Tuck if the United States would not take these Jewish refugee orphans off his hands.  Tuck then asked the US State Department to seriously consider Laval’s offer to hand over these Jewish orphans.  There were between 5,000 and 8,000 Jewish orphans in Vichy.  At this point, Tuck knew that if these children could not leave they would certainly be deported.  He also knew that deportation meant that these children would probably be murdered. 

On September 28, Secretary of State Cordell Hull offered to authorize 1,000 visas to have these children immigrate to the United States. 

On October 23, Laval reneged on his offer and proposed to give over only 500 children.  Laval imposed so many difficult preconditions that they virtually ended the rescue efforts.  As a result, only 350 children were able to be saved and brought to the US.  This was done in spite of Vichy’s lack of cooperation.  Tuck was commended by a number of organizations for trying to help Jewish orphans survive.

[Marrus, Michael, R., and Robert O. Paxton. Vichy France and the Jews. (New York: Basic Books, 1981).  Poznanski, Renée. Jews in France during World War II. (Hanover: Brandeis University Press, 2001).  Ryan, Donna F. The Holocaust and the Jews of Marseille: The Enforcement of Anti-Semitic Policies in Vichy France. (Urbana, IL: The University of Illinois Press, 1996), pp. 117, 152-153.  Wyman, David S. The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945. (New York: Pantheon, 1984), pp. 36-37.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Stephen B. Vaughan, US Vice Consul in Breslau, Germany, 1938-39

US Vice Consul Stephen B. Vaughan was responsible for issuing visas to Jews from Breslau, Germany, in the region of Silesia.  Vaughan issued visas to more than 700 Jewish families escaping Germany in 1938-39.  The visas were for the Philippine islands.  Although they were not farmers, the Jews were issued visas ostensibly as agricultural experts.  They survived the war in the Philippines.  After the war, many emigrated to the East Coast of the United States.

[US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


George P. Waller, US Chargé in Luxembourg

The US diplomatic mission in Luxembourg put considerable resources into verifying the status of refugee visa applications that were being processed at the US consulate in Stuttgart, Germany.  This enabled unused visa quotas to be utilized.  Chargé Waller stated, “it is a comfort to realize that through such cooperation it has been possible for a great many helpless and persecuted people to receive shelter and a waiting place in Luxemburg.”

[Wyman, David S. Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1939-1941. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), p. 167.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Sam Woods, US Economic Attaché in Bern, Switzerland

Sam Woods was the US Economic Attaché in Bern, Switzerland.  Woods was also an intelligence officer with ties to Secretary of State Cordell Hull.  Jewish refugees supplied Wood information about the treatment of Jews in Nazi-occupied central Europe.  Woods suggested that Jewish refugees coordinate their rescue activities with the Sternbuch family and their rescue activities headquartered in Bern, Switzerland.

[Kranzler, David. Thy Brother’s Blood: The Orthodox Jewish Response During the Holocaust. (Brooklyn: Mesorah, 1987), p. 189.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


Alfred Zollinger, US Representative of the International Red Cross in the United States, 1944?

Alfred Zollinger was the representative of the International Red Cross in the United States.  He delivered a communication from the Red Cross in Geneva that “the Hungarian government had announced its readiness to enable the emigration of certain categories of Jews and has announced its readiness to assist in this matter.”  Through Zollinger, the Red Cross requested the US issue entry visas to the United States.  As a result, the US Undersecretary of State, Edward Stettinius, Jr., sent a memorandum to various consulates in Europe requesting that the local consuls appeal to local governments where they were posted asking them to consent to receive children from Hungary and France.  As a result, several governments issued temporary visas to potential immigrants, including Switzerland, Sweden, Spain and the Vatican.

[Dworzecki, Meir, “The International Red Cross and its Policy Vis-à-Vis the Jews in Ghettos and Concentration Camps in Nazi-Occupied Europe,” in Gutman, Y., and E. Zuroff (Eds.). Rescue Attempts during the Holocaust: Proceedings of the Second Yad Vashem International Historical Conference, Jerusalem, 3-11 April, 1974. (Jerusalem, 1977), pp. 102-103.  Feingold, 1970, p. 267.  US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.]


United States Consulate in Oslo, Norway

After the Nazis invaded and occupied Norway in April 1940, the US consulate in Oslo gave diplomatic protection to numerous German Jewish refugees who had fled to Norway.  They were helped until they were eventually able to escape to Sweden.

[US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.  Wyman, David S. Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1939-1941. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), p. 167.] 


United States Consulate in Stuttgart, Germany, 1940

The US consulate in Stuttgart, Germany, cooperated with the US consulate in Luxemburg in helping Jewish refugees receive papers and other documentation to escape the Nazis.  (See entry for George P. Waller.)

[US State Department Diplomatic Records, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, MD.  Wyman, David S. Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1939-1941. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), p. 167.]